CORTEX Self-Directed Learning

CORTEX will gradually catalogue all existing self-paced and virtual patient modules. Existing modules and tutorials are currently located within Cardiff Learning Central and linked to within specific year groups and enrolled programmes of study. CORTEX intends to make these more widely available and searchable by their keywords within this site, for example, specific learning objectives or subject areas. The e-learning team welcome all comments and opinions on this activity.

Selecting & Integrating Media in eLearning

Abstract
When considering the types of media to include in the module, it is important to ensure that the learner is not being overloaded or overwhelmed to the point of distraction from the intended level of engagement or from the learning objectives themselves, therefore it is important to keep use of different media (e.g. video, audio, hi-fidelity animation) in context, and strictly fit for purpose.

The purpose of this document is to analyse each type of computer-based media and explore their strengths and weaknesses when used within self-paced eLearning.

Text
Pros

• We read quickly
• Learners read at their own pace
• Text is flexible and searchable
• Text is easy to modify
• Text is portable

Cons

• English may be a second language
• Content may require graphic illustration

 Images Graphics & Diagrams
Pros

• No literacy skills required to interpret an image
• Highly applicable to medicine
• Simplifies, highlights and illustrates a principal, concept or process
• Graphics and icons provide associative markers for content
• Transfers information easily through charts and diagrams

Cons

• Copyright issues
• Awkward to update

 Animation & Animated Sequences
Pros

• Effectively reinforces points in a sequence or process
• Effectively transfers information about a particular system, sequence or process which static media (e.g. text or images) cannot

Cons

• Learners cannot view at their own pace
• Lengthy sequences cannot be remembered as easily as static versions
• Requires advanced skills
• Requires longer development time
• Awkward to update

Audio
Pros

• Few learners cannot hear (more cannot read)
• Points can be emphasised or transferred differently through speech
• Good for learners with English as a second language
• Can be used widely on portable devices such as iPods or mobile phones

Cons

• Learners do not listen at their own pace
• Requires higher level of skill to produce
• Awkward to modify or update

Virtual Patients at Cardiff; Literature Review Abstract

Purpose
After developing a small number of experimental Virtual Patients as optional components in the undergraduate curriculum and having received very favourable feedback from students about them the School now needs to undertake a more comprehensive review of virtual patients. The review intends to uncover the pedagogic underpinnings for effective virtual patient delivery and help CU staff identify areas of the medical curriculum where they would be best suited.

Method
A literature review of how both national and international medical teaching institutions have reported the effectiveness of their VP implementation, with particular focus on elements of the educational theories which have best enhanced the intended transferable learning aspects. The results were then used with the intention of helping staff identify areas of the undergraduate curriculum where VP’s would be best suited, and to what degree they can be integrated into core teaching.

Results
Results indicated a wide variance of the ways in which VPs were integrated into core medical teaching but with common theme of pedagogic design prinicpals which were key to the effectiveness of preparing the student for ‘real’ patient encounters; authenticity was seen as a key enabling factor for this.

Conclusion
It was found that the development of competence in clinical reasoning was a key target for any VP; authenticity of clinical events and patient dialogue facilitated by appropriate media being a dominant factor in preparing the student for real patient interaction, particularly in exercising social and communication skills. VP’s can be integrated as a focal subject for use within lectures or seminars, or used as a self-directed study aid, accessed externally to core teaching; the degree of its integration should be left to the discretion of the curriculum leads.

Virtual Patients at Cardiff; A Review

Virtual Patients are computer-based simulations of fictitious patients presenting with a complaint. The complaint is analysed by the learner and encourages thinking processes surrounding history taking, examination, diagnosis, treatment and discharge, without the obvious risks associated with a student treating a real patient case. The cases can focus on important common condition but can also be used to cover important conditions that it may be difficult for students to gain experience of, such as domestic abuse.

Main Points...

• Allows self-directed learning opportunities
• Narrative/didactic style of delivery for earlier years students
• Branched/exploratory style of learning for later years where knowledge can be applied
• Focus is on applying clinical knowledge to diagnostic thinking and management
• Cognitive realism - that is that the challenge posed to the learner seems real - is more important than visual realism - that is that real photos or video clips are used
• Communication/social skills for patient dialogue can be exercised Opportunity to familiarise with patient dialogue
• Continual focus on learning objectives is key for maintaining relevance
• Regular self-assessment opportunities allows the learner to evaluate their own progress
• Promotion of clinical reasoning is arguably the most important distinguishing feature of VP delivery and purpose

Read more about the comprehensive literature review conducted at Cardiff University School of Medicine...

Access the full literature review here.

ECG Recording

A Clinical Skills module is now available on Learning Central. The module details how to record a full, detailed tracing of the electrical activity of the heart, using an ECG (electrocardiograph) machine recorder.

Clinical Skills

• Dawn Lau

Launch this module

Clinical Skills Self-directed Resources

The Clinical Skills Centre is now located on the third floor of the Cochrane Building and is managed by Sian Williams. An expansive directory of self-directed tutorials exist for the Centre and can be found by logging in to Learning Central via the Clinical Skills section, or via the Clinical Skills microsite.

Interim Patient Consent Policy

An interim patient consent policy has now been published on the CORTEX website.

This policy will remain in-place until the full legal position regarding patient consent in the context of medical education can be assessed and a policy protecting the School’s interested can be written and approved.

School of Medicine Patient Consent Guidelines

Learning Central (Blackboard)

Access to Blackboard is via http://cue.cf.ac.uk. To login to Blackboard simply use your Cardiff University username and password.

Note: Being able to log into Blackboard does not mean you have been granted permission to see any of the content modules within Blackboard. Refer to the information below for advice on how to get access to the modules you think you should be able to see.

Enrollment on Blackboard Modules

Student Enrollments
Student enrollments are handled via the University’s student management system, SIMS. SIMS is used by Registry to track all student data, including the courses and modules they are enrolled on and their status on that course (including information about tuition fees). If students do not have access to their appropriate modules, the first point of contact should be Registry to check the student details within SIMS.

Staff Enrollments
Staff access to the School of Medicine’s Blackboard modules can be granted by the School’s local Blackboard administrators.

To request access to a module, please email the medic IT team with full details of the module you require access to (including the full module code and module title) along with your Cardiff University username.

Please note we cannot provide access to another School’s modules – this must be done by their local Blackboard administrator.

Access for NHS Staff

Access for External Examiners
External examiners are entitled to access Blackboard, and will need a Cardiff University user name and password to do so. Under normal circumstances Registry will arrange login details for all external examiners.

To request access to specific Blackboard modules, use the procedure outlined above Staff Enrolments, providing the IT Team with the examiner’s user name.

In the event the examiner has not been issued with a user name and password by Registry, you should email medicIT@cardiff.ac.uk and explain that you require access for an examiner who has not received a user name and password. You should provide the name and contact details for the external examiner as well as details of the Blackboard modules they will require access to. The School’s IT Team will issue a user name and password and enrol the new account on the appropriate Blackboard modules.

Note: external examiners will only be granted student-level access to Blackboard modules unless further access is expressly requested by the module leader.
Temporary Accounts

The eLearning Team have a number of temporary accounts available that can can be loaned out to other members of staff to use as test accounts. This may be particularly useful if you need to review a Blackboard module (and activities) from a student’s perspective. Similarly accounts can be loaned out to guest users on a temporary basis.

To request a temporary account please email the medic e-learning team.

Wikis

A wiki is an editable web page which enables many-to-many communication – it is essentially a database created by a group rather than an individual (e.g. Wikipedia). Wikis are similar to blogs but allow the text on the website to be edited by others, with the creation of a common document that can be shared between individuals. One of the big advantages of collaborating with wikis is that it should reduce email traffic.

Wikis can be used to share dialogue and information among participants in group projects, or to allow learners to engage in learning with each other, using wikis as a collaborative environment to construct their knowledge or to be part of a virtual community of practice. Wikis show the evolution of thought processes as students interact with the site and its contents.

As users can modify the content of a wiki, allowing such manipulation carries some risks. Thus wikis are often monitored to ensure that inappropriate language or content are not allowed; however, this can be time-consuming.

How to do it
There are many different wiki creating and hosting services available. Wikimatrix provides a comparison of the key features offered by a variety of services. There are also plenty of other non-wiki collaborative editing tools such as googledocs. Most wiki-hosting services have a built-in search system for you to find wikis of interest, and there are some general wiki-search engines such as wikiindex.


Incorporating wikis

• To create multimedia presentations and simple digital stories as they are able to incorporate sounds, movies and pictures
• As e-portfolios illustrating their utility as a tool for collection and reflection of current thoughts
• To form groups around specific topics and might also prove to be an ideal vehicle for soliciting ongoing input for research or projects where community input can help inform and direct subsequent investigation
• As repositories for meeting notes. Agenda items are contributed prior to a meeting; notes added during the meeting are saved in a public archive

Considerations
In an open and collaborative web environment, anyone can very easily post copyrighted material without the permission of copyright holders (e.g. patient anonymity when clinical data and images are posted), post otherwise unsuitable or misleading content

A lack of clear and complete authorship/editorship information attached to each wiki entry, including authors’/editors’ affiliations and credentials, is a serious quality issue. Wiki author anonymity also poses questions for higher education institutions where assessment and grading are still typically based on individual efforts

Wikis are sometimes prone to vandalism and, as a result, to serious quality issues, because of their free form nature and the (relative/potential) lack of control over their content (e.g. edit in a way that reduces its accuracy, or even delete a good wiki entry)

Wikis do not have the functionality expected on more traditional web sites, such as the use of highly visual dynamic backgrounds that are integrated with various multimedia. However, they are highly useful pedagogically as a low technology approach to providing an online presence with the ability to have links to other online resources or to store a variety of files


Solutions
Monitoring and moderation: Wiki software packages have built-in ‘Administrator’s functionalities’ to support monitoring and moderation. However, these tasks can be very time-consuming and may prove to be too great a challenge to ask of educators who already lack time and resources

The ‘closed environment’ scenario: e.g. Learning Central – The wiki owner(s) /Administrator(s), enforce, check, and limit wiki and blog registration and editing privileges to selected, well-defined, and verifiable special interest groups or communities of users. Everyone else will still be able to access/read the wiki and, if desirable to also post limited (moderated) comments (to build a community)

Obtaining Patient Permission: Permission must be sought when posting clinical photos/videos, and all efforts should be made to preserve individuals’ privacy. Clinical wikis may also be password protected if necessary to further preserve patient confidentiality. The software also makes it a simple matter for an editor to delete/revert or modify material that violates patient privacy. Refer to patient consent and copyright policies

Podcasts

A podcast is a digital recording, commonly in the form of an audio MP3 file, but it may also include other formats, including video. The downloaded digital media files can be played on a range of devices including personal computers, laptops etc… that have a media player, such as iTunes or Windows Media Player installed. Podcasts can also be played on a wide range of portable devices, including iPods, MP3 players and an increasing number of mobile phones, and Portable Digital Assistants (PDAs).

Podcasting’s essence is about creating content for an audience that wants to listen when they want, where they want, and how they want. Several podcast RSS clients such as iPodder and, iTunes can be freely downloaded and configured to each user’s interests and needs. As with blogs, there are many searchable podcast directories available, including Podcast.net and the Educational Podcast network.

How to do it
Podcasts are created by recording an audio file and then making it available on the internet. This can be done in as simple or sophisticated a way as required, but does require basic recording equipment. There are various useful tutorials available online, such as How to Podcast. Open source audio editing and recording software, such as Audacity, is available to assist with podcast creation.

Incorporating Podcasts

• To record lectures (or preferably, parts of lectures) for those students unable to attend the lecture in person
• To record textbook content by chapter allowing students to ‘read’ or review texts while walking or travelling to class (can be significant aid for auditory learners)
• As downloadable libraries of high resolution heart and respiratory sounds for medical students
• By students as part of a multimedia project
• To provide generic feedback to students

For more examples refer to those listed by MELSIG (Media Enhanced Learning Special Interest Group).

Blogs

A blog (short for ‘web log’) typically describes an online personal diary kept on the Web, usually maintained by one person – even one with few Web publication skills. The blog is a includes regular entries of commentary, links, or other material such as graphics or video about a particular topic. The activity of updating a blog is known as ‘blogging’ and someone who keeps a blog is a ‘blogger.’ Blogging is a straightforward and interesting way for students to generate, share and keep up-to-date with timely and topical information.

Research currently suggests that blogs engage students in knowledge sharing, reflection and debate, and so often attract a large and dedicated readership. This has the advantage of creating small virtual groupings of individuals interested in co-constructing knowledge around a common topic. Through linking, commenting and feedback, good or popular ideas spread quickly, while unpopular ideas are simply ignored.

The RSS feeds generated by blogs mean users can subscribe to the blog and automatically receive updates as and when new content is added to the blog. Blog subscription and syndication services include general ones such as Blogbridge, or specialised services such as Scienceblogs. Increasingly, blogs incorporate multimedia, and you can also upload and read them via mobile devices. Due to the vast number of blogs available comprehensive blog search facilities are available at Technorati and Google.

How to do it
There are a variety of blogging services available, many of which are free. When choosing a service, you must consider the configuration and moderation options available – for example, do you want your blog to be open to all, or just invited guests? Some of the major blogging services include Edublogs, WordPress and of course the University’s Learning Central. JISC also provides a useful summary comparison chart.

Incorporating Blogs
Despite the early state of implementation, there are several studies that list advantages for using blogs in educational settings including:

• As e-Portfolios for personal reflection on clinical experience or as portfolios to store personal thoughts and information sources
• To capture and disseminate faculty-generated content as well as peer-to-peer knowledge sharing and acquisition
• As a forum for discussion that goes beyond coursework to include other areas of personal exploration
• To informally follow the progress of a topic more quickly than is possible within the rigorous expert review model of evidence gathering required by academic journals

Considerations

• In an open and collaborative web environment, anyone can very easily post copyrighted material without the permission of copyright holders (e.g. patient anonymity when clinical data and images are posted), post otherwise unsuitable or misleading content
• Blogs are sometimes prone to vandalism and, as a result, to serious quality issues, because of their free form nature and the (relative/potential) lack of control over their content
• Blogs do not have the functionality expected on more traditional web sites, such as the use of highly visual dynamic backgrounds that are integrated with various multimedia. However, they are highly useful pedagogically as a low technology approach to providing an online presence with the ability to have links to other online resources or to store a variety of files]

Solutions

• Monitoring and moderation: Blog software packages have built-in ‘Administrator’s functionalities’ to support monitoring and moderation. However, these tasks can be very time-consuming and may prove to be too great a challenge to ask of educators who already lack time and resources
• The ‘closed environment’ scenario: e.g. Learning Central - The blog owner(s) /Administrator(s), enforce, check, and limit wiki and blog registration and editing privileges to selected, well-defined, and verifiable special interest groups or communities of users. Everyone else will still be able to access/read the blog and, if desirable to also post limited (moderated) comments (to build a community)
• Obtaining Patient Permission: Permission must be sought when posting clinical photos/videos, and all efforts should be made to preserve individuals’ privacy. Clinical blogs may also be password protected if necessary to further preserve patient confidentiality. The software also makes it a simple matter for an editor to delete/revert or modify material that violates patient privacy. Refer to patient consent and copyright policies]
• Importantly, educators need to set guidelines and expectations to maximize the benefits of blogs

Blogging can be seen as a behaviour of social knowledge construction, and the use of blogs in online educational settings has the potential to help enhance students’ knowledge sharing and learning effectiveness. However, some students may not blog in spite of the availability of blog platforms.

Web 2.0

Web 2.0 is commonly referred to as a second generation of services available on the web, allowing users to do more than just retrieve information. Social software is considered a key web 2.0 development, since it encompasses services which facilitate collaborating, sharing, meeting and communicating with others online. Although much of this activity is currently social, there is a huge education potential in these tools, particularly with students who are not campus-based.

While there is no set definition of Web 2.0, the phrase generally refers to the use of interactive and collaborative web applications as social media platforms, where users participate by generating their own content alongside the content provided by the websites themselves. This characteristic is often stated as being the primary difference between Web 2.0 and the original World Wide Web (Web 1.0).

Web 2.0 applications allow students to easily create their own content and also to actively share information, opinion and support across networks of students. They are relatively easy to use requiring little or no technical expertise and there are many free an Open Source versions availble that offer flexibility and convergence options with a number of systems. In addition, they provide educational opportunities for students ‘any time, any place’. The collaborative and engaging nature of these tools can then be used to support a number of educational processes such as reflection, knowledge building and encouraging student participation and discussion.

Web 2.0 Terminology
Web 2.0 literacy is increasingly important, so here is a glossary of social media terminology to help you get the ‘gist’ of the jargon.

• Tags - The categorization of content by users adding tags (short, usually one-word descriptions or keywords to facilitate searching). As opposed to a classical taxonomy-based categorization system (e.g. MESH), they are usually non-hierarchical, and the vocabulary is open
• Tag Clouds – Give you a visual idea of tag frequency for a blog or other social media site. The more popular a tag, the bigger the text appears in the cloud.
• Folksonomies – These are collections of tags created by many users within a single system
• Syndication – allows websites to ‘push’ new content to users. RSS (Really Simple Syndication) is a family of web feed formats used to publish frequently updated works, such as blog entries, news headlines, audio and video in a standardized format. RSS benefits users who want to subscribe to multiple feeds using a feed reader. To provide a single point of access for updates to content from multiple sources. An increasing number of medical journals have RSS feeds available
• Mashup – involve the merging of information from multiple sources. For example, Google maps and BBC traffic data
• Open Source – Open Source refers to software that is available to the general public at no monetary cost. However, there may still be restrictions on what you can and cannot do with the software

Web 2.0 Software Tools
An outline of different social software tools follows. However, it is important to note that there is a growing trend for services which combine different features in one package, such as services which enable you to join online communities, set up blogs and wikis and share photographs all via one website.

Blogs
Blogs (short for ‘weblogs’) are personal websites that allow rapid updating by the author and can be most easily described as a web-based diary. Content can be easily created (listed in date order) and shared. They are designed to be interactive, allowing others to post comments about the blog entries; however, it is usually not possible for anyone to alter the content except the owner. Syndication options enable users to subscribe to blogs and digests. Increasingly, blogs incorporate multimedia, and you can also upload and read them via mobile devices. Examples of blog platforms include: Learning Central, edublogs. Microblogging – allows users to send brief text updates e.g. Twitter.

Wikis
Wikis are similar to blogs but allow the text of the website to be edited by others, with the creation of a common document that can be shared between individuals. Examples of wiki platforms include: Learning Central,  MediaWiki (the platform that wikipedia is based upon). wikis give an opportunity for users with different types of knowledge, confidence and communication to contribute equally to a joint publication. Collaborators who lack confidence to argue a case in a ‘live’ face-to-face debate can feel more comfortable making the same points in a wiki environment where the pace of discussion is slower and the quality of the thinking is more significant than force of personality.

Podcasts
Podcasts are audio recordings made available on the internet, which can be played on computers or downloaded to hand-held devices such as MP3 players, providing the potential for ‘anytime, anywhere’ mobile learning experiences. Users can subscribe to podcasts using RSS feeds, so that any new broadcast in a series is automatically downloaded to their PC or device. Podcasts have been embraced by the education sector, since they offer a lively method of communicating with different audiences – whether for lectures, discussions, audio guides etc…

Social Bookmarking
Social bookmarking allows users to save online resources as bookmarks, which can be accessed from any device with an Internet connection, both by the bookmarker and by the wider community. Most  bookmarking sites also allow bookmarks to be tagged to make finding them easier later. In these systems, bookmarks represent ‘links’ to web resources (they do not attach a copy of them). Examples of social bookmarking platforms include: digg, diigo

Media Sharing – Visual media can be uploaded and stored on a website and shared with please ensure that you refer to consent and copyright policies. Examples of media sharing platforms include: Flickr , You Tube

Social Networking – Involves the process of building online communities, often accomplished both through ‘groups’ and ‘friends lists’ that allow greater interaction on websites. Several approaches can be combined in these sites to make them extremely versatile e.g. blogging and file sharing. Examples of social networking platforms include: Cardiff University Connections Service, My Space, Facebook
Social software tools can provide significant support to both traditional teaching and distance education programs by facilitating interaction, collaboration, and the formation of
social networks among students.

Further Resources
Cardiff University Learning and teaching support
Learning Central
JISC e-Learning Programme
Donald Clarke “Don’t lecture me”
JISC Report “Higher Education in a Web 2.0 World”
www.jisc.ac.uk/media/documents/publications/heweb20rptv1.pdf
HEA e-Learning Programme
JISC Advance – Guide to Digital Media
7things you should know about… Podcasting
7 things you should know about… Blogs
7 things you should know about… Wikis

Using Audio

Audio offers an important dimension that can enhance the student’s learning experience. There are three primary audio elements that can be used in educational technology:

• Speech (Narration e.g. Expert opinion)
• Music (Introductions and transitions)
• Sound effects (e.g. Heart and respiratory sounds)

Through these elements, audio can deliver information, direct attention, convey emotions, support the text/images/animations, and provide feedback. Generally, when audio is used in e-learning it is used in the form of narration, as music and sound effects both have limited application and should only be used when relevant to the content of the course. Decisions, such as when, where and how to implement audio can be perplexing. In some cases, the selection is self-evident, based on the content or characteristics of the student audience. However, as a general rule, audio should only be used to enhance learning and make the learning experience more effective.

Why use Audio?
Audio appeals to the auditory learning style and can be  effective for walking students through flowcharts or explaining complex images or concepts. It can also create a sense of human touch when used for introductions and expert opinions. Audio files in the form of podcasts, offer students convenience as they appreciate learning on the go as well as the ability to stop, review and repeat the podcast, reinforcing learning and assisting in revision.

Considerations
It is important that the decision to use audio is carefully considered and well thought out otherwise it can:

• Be costly and time-consuming if material has to be re-edited frequently
• Be distracting for students who prefer or need to read content. Here, the option for the student to mute the narration and read a transcript instead may be a feasible alternative
• Slow down students (since many would read faster) which can perhaps be a good thing in certain circumstances as some students tend to click through e-learning lessons too quickly to easily absorb the information
• Promote passive engagement of content, if learners opt to read e-mail or do other tasks while listening to the audio
• Audio files can be large, therefore, users must have sufficient bandwidth to download them

Podcasts
Podcasting allows students to use their technology-based entertainment systems (iPods, MP3 players) for educational experiences. Because students are already familiar with the underlying technology, podcasting broadens educational options in a non-threatening and easily accessible manner. Most podcasts to date are audio files, but they can include images and video too. Podcasts can be played on a computer or any mobile device that plays .mp3 or .m4a files. This includes iPods and other audio players, personal digital assistants (PDAs) and mobile phones.

Podcasts are relatively fast, easy and inexpensive to produce and are convenient for many students as they can learn at their own pace, in their own time and in a location of their choice. Podcasting is not limited to content delivery, students can create their own podcasts as a record of activity, as a way to collect notes, or as reflection on what they have learned. Podcasts can sometimes be perceived as being less engaging due to reduced interaction (e.g. Inability of the student to ask questions and inability of the lecturer to gauge understanding) in which case they can be improved by using them in conjunction with blogs, e-mails and wiki’s.

Students are able to subscribe through syndication to receive automatic updates. Syndication or RSS (Really Simple Syndication) is a family of web feed formats used to publish frequently updated works—such as audio, video and blog entries in a standardized form. They benefit users who want to subscribe to timely updates from favoured websites or to aggregate feeds from many sites into one place. RSS feeds bring updates directly to the user, there is no need to go to multiple web sites, and the person can know almost the instant new information is posted as all new content is ‘pushed’ onto their browsers when it becomes available.

Equipment Needed to Create Audio Files
All of the tools needed to create, modify, and distribute audio files are generally within reach of anyone with a reasonably well-configured laptop/PC. However, it is worth remembering that your audio quality is never going to be better than what you originally recorded.  So you need to do the best you can to record good quality audio from the start.
A good microphone is essential and you need to control your recording environment (Media Resources have a sound booth). However tempted you may be to use the built-in microphone of your laptop – don’t! Although it might be of good quality, it will readily pick up hard drive and computer fan noise. Use a microphone that you can plug into the computer and put in the ideal place for recording. JISC offer general guidance on microphone characteristics, selection and care. Once recorded, your ‘raw audio’ should be edited to ensure that it has maximum educational impact on the user.

How to Create Audio Files

1. Create a script of the content that needs to be covered – the flow needs to be organised, logical and the writing should be clear and precise
2. Record and edit your script in digital format using sound recording software. There are many free Open Source tools for recording audio and include: Audacity, Myna, Levelator
3. In terms of accessibility, prepare any supporting resources for students such as a transcript documents
4. Decide on how to distribute the audio files to learners either as online audio files integrated within a tutorial or as podcasts and upload the tutorial/podcasts to Learning Central

Tips When Using Audio

• Keep the recording to an appropriate length – Research suggests audio segments within instruction should be kept to 1-2 minutes. Podcasts ideally should be kept to within 15 minutes
• Maintain clear educational context, content and structure – Audio should always begin with a clear context for the information being presented and end with a review of the most important things to remember
• Avoid overly complex and dense content that contains lots of facts and figures
• Use an informal tone – The quality of speakers’ voices, speech patterns, intonations, and other sound effects may not be the same as those of a professional broadcast. Some training and practice, both in handling an audio-only medium and using the technology may be required
• Offer flexible/multiple delivery options  in order to accommodate different students’ preferences for subscribing and downloading

Further Resources
JISC Digital Media – Audio advice
How to Podcast Tutorials
Handbook on Digital Video and Audio in Education
New England Journal of Medicine
Access Medicine – A weekly series of podcasts features lectures from world-renowned academic physicians on topics in internal medicine
CTisus-Computed Tomography Podcasts – Educational content for radiologists, radiology technologists, and other professionals in the principles and practice of CT scanning (computed tomography)
MedicineNet – Produces the podcast ‘Doctors on Health’, which explores current health news and trends in medicine for physicians

Technology & Pedagogy

Exemplary teaching combines skilful use of pedagogy with content expertise and innovative uses of technology, embedding key elements into course design. Wilson (2003)

As educational technologies continue their rapid evolution and the effectiveness of traditional educational techniques are brought into question (Bligh, 2000), it would be easy to become overly enamoured and forget that the technology is fundamentally dependent on the underlying pedagogy and learning principles employed to deliver the educational programs themselves; indeed “pedagogies before technologies” is a commonly touted phrase (Watson, 2001; Ascough, 2002; Mayes and De Freitas, 2004).

Beetham and Sharpe (2007) suggest that far from trying to create pedagogy anew, we should be in the business of locating new technologies within proven practices and models of teaching, where the focus is on educational issues or problems that might possibly be solved, at least partially, by the provision of learning arrangements that make a deliberate and effective use of technology. Unfortunately, there is no one simple approach to using technology to support learning that will succeed. Instead the starting point is not the technology per se, but the educational process itself.

Pedagogical Perspectives
Pedagogy is a term that generally refers to strategies of instruction or a style of instruction (Stephenson, 2002). A number are often quoted in e-Learning literature and can be mapped into broad theoretical educational perspectives that govern the good practice of teaching (JISC 2004). These perspectives are not mutually exclusive, but within each, it is possible to identify a key set of assumptions, that have in turn generated a large number of pedagogical approaches and models that can be used to encourage specific aspects of learning (Insert Table 1).

Table 1: Defining approaches to learning from the Effective Practice with e-learning Guide

e-Learning Pedagogy
Although a number of reviews of learning theories and their relevance to e-Learning have been carried out (Conole et al., 2003; Mayes and De Freitas, 2004; Beetham and Sharpe, 2007; Dyke et al., 2001) it would appear that there is currently little evidence of how these models or theories are applied consistently to effective pedagogically driven e-Learning. Research indicates that most implementations of e-learning include blended elements that emphasise all three pedagogical perspectives: learning as behaviour, learning as the construction of knowledge and meaning, and learning as social practice. However, the literature also suggests that the emerging pedagogical consensus centres around constructivism – collaborative learning, authentic tasks, reflection and dialogue and to do so in a way that addresses both identity and community (Bangert, 2004; Mayes, 2004; Windschitl, 2002). Weller (2003) also cites constructivism as the dominant teaching pedagogy applicable to the Internet, but while advocating that there are opportunities for new pedagogies he also admits that they should be used “in conjunction with more traditional approaches”.

e-Learning also places additional emphasis on several key features including the ‘individualisation’ of learning, with each student making their own learning pathways at a speed that is appropriate to them, and ‘just-in-time’ learning where students have timely access to relevant and useful knowledge. Moreover the steady growth in mobile device ownership enables mobile learning (m-learning) where students are able to learn at ‘any time and in any place’. These features demonstrate students increasing reliance on an eclectic mix of personal and institutionally-based technologies and illustrate that much of this e-learning is not developing as conventional pedagogy – but as ‘informal learning’. This is facilitating the bottom-up development of learning communities by combining one-to-one (email and instant messaging), one-to-many (discussion tools, blogs and podcasts), and many-to-many (wikis) communication modes.

Technologies Identified
The tools used to support and deliver learning cover a wide range of different applications including:

• Virtual Learning Environments (VLEs) – Many institutions have now adopted VLEs which incorporate collaboration and communication tools such as wikis, blogs, forums and chat. However, research suggests that while VLEs may have enhanced learner access to online resources, the associated communication tools have been little used JISC (2003).
• Reusable Learning Objects (RLOs)
• Self-paced Computer Aided Instruction (CAI)
• Web 2.0 Tools – Technology can provide a medium for conversing and collaborating within the learning environment (Jonassen et al. 1999; McConnell, 2006). The growing interest in social dimensions of learning and the availability of more open-source web-based social networking tools have been adopted in learning and teaching (Dron, 2007). Web 2.0 social technologies include: social network services, social bookmarking, folksonomies, social search engines, file sharing and tagging, mashups, instant messaging an online multi-player games. More popular in education appear to be wikis, blogs and podcasts (Boulos et al., 2007). Wikis – enact knowledge building, where the focus is on the community itself rather than on the individual learner (Holmes et al, 2004). Wikis are based upon a principle of non-exclusive authority, anyone and everyone gets to decide what will be said (content), how it will be said (organization), and whether it will be said (dissemination). Blogs – are useful teaching and learning tools because they provide a space for students to reflect and publish their thoughts and understandings. As blogs allow comments, they also provide opportunities for feedback and potential scaffolding of new ideas. Podcasts – can be released episodically to ‘push’ content to students that want to listen when they want, where they want and how they want.
• Multimedia – In its most straightforward role, multimedia can be used to present the subject matter. There are many different ways of integrating graphics into tutorials, ranging from simple stick figures to sophisticated simulations using virtual reality applications. However, at no time should a desire for sophistication and look outweigh the pedagogical value of the item itself, especially not when functionality might be compromised. Video – is by far one of the most powerful and expressive non-textual media that can capture and present information. A number of e-Learning systems present integrated and synchronized instructional materials in different media such as video, presentation slides, and lecture notes to users.
• e-Portfolios
• Formative Assessments

An instructor is therefore faced with choosing from a plethora of tools and learning theories in order to create specific learning activities which can be confusing. JISC (2004) suggest that these technologies reflect the pedagogical perspectives listed below (Table 2).

Table 2: Pedagogical Perspectives and Technology

Summary
The use and understanding of technology in teaching is often viewed as a separate issue to that of teaching in itself. If the primary focus of teaching is on pedagogy, and technology is merely viewed as another mode of delivery, then technology and pedagogy can be seen as existing separately, with one having minimal impact on the other. However, if elements of technology and pedagogy can be seen as mutually supportive and interdependent, then it should be possible to construct new meaning about teaching online that is integrative and serves to bring about a bridging of the gap between pedagogy and technology (Maor, 2004 and Wilson 2003).

Alexander and Boud (2001) argue that much of the potential for online learning is being lost because too much of the pedagogy of online learning has been transferred unreflectively from didactic traditional teaching where the computer substitutes for the teacher and textbook as a conveyer of information. It has been argued that many of the digital learning objects created to-date simply translate existing lectures into a digital format, with no change in the pedagogy used (Donald Clarke – Don’t lecture me).

Recommendations in the literature point towards technologies specifically designed to provide interactivity that guide students towards online collaborations (Crook, 1994). This in turn promotes, among other things, skills such as articulation, justification and negotiation (Crook, 1994), shared responsibilities (Laurillard, 1997; Goodyear, 2001), scaffolding (Salmon, 2000), setting hypotheses (Valdez et al., 2000), reflection (Schon, 1992; Laurillard, 1997; Goodyear, 2002), knowledge activation and knowledge application (Gagne, 1965; Bruner, 1997; Goodyear, 2001) and individualized learning and motivation (Goodyear 2002). Advice and guidance is available to institutions as there is no blueprint for implementation of technologies, and each is currently deciding its own path (JISC, 2003)

References

Alexander, S. and Boud, D. (2001) Learners still learn from experience when online. In: Stephenson, J. (Ed.) Teaching and learning online: pedagogies for new technologies. London, Kogan Page.

Ascough, R.S. (2002) Designing for Online Distance Education: Putting Pedagogy before Technology. Teaching Theology and Religion: 1; p.p. 17-29.

Bangert, A. W. (2004) The Seven Principles of Good Practice: a framework for evaluating online teaching. The Internet and Higher Education. 7 (3), 217-232.

Beetham, H. and Sharpe, R. (2007) Rethinking Pedagogy for a Digital Age – Designing and Delivering e-Learning. Routledge, London.

Beetham, H. (2004) Initial Positioning Report. JISC programme on pedagogies for e-learning.

Bligh, D.A.  (2000) What’s the Use of Lectures? Exeter: Intellect.

Boulos, M.K. and Wheelert, S. (2007) The emerging Web 2.0 Social Software: an enabling suite of sociable technologies in health and healthcare education.

Bruner, J. (1997) The culture of education (Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press).

Conole, G.  Dyke, M. Oliver, M. and Seale, J. (2004) Mapping pedagogy and tools for effective learning, Computers and Education, 43, 17–33.

Crook, C. (2009) Web 2.0 technologies for learning: the current landscape – opportunities, challenges and tensions. Becta, 2008

Dron, J. (2007). Designing the Undesignable: Social Software and Control. Educational Technology and Society, 10 (3), 60-71.

Dyke, M. (2001) Reflective learning and reflexive modernity as theory practice and research in post-compulsory education

Gagne, R. M. (1965) The conditions of learning (New York, Holt, Rinehart & Winston Inc.).

Goodyear, P. (2001). ‘Effective networked learning in higher education: notes and guidelines.’ Centre for Studies in Advanced Learning Technology, Lancaster University. Networked Learning in Higher Education Project, Deliverable 9, Volume 3 of final report to JCALT.

Goodyear, P. (2002) Psychological foundations for networked learning. In: Steeples, C. and Jones,C. (eds.), Networked Learning: Perspectives and Issues. London: Springer, 49–75.

Holmes, B. and Gardner, J. (2006) E-learning :concepts and practice. Sage : London.

Jarvis, P. (1987). Adult learning in a social context. London: Croom Helm.

JISC (2003)  Effective Practice with e-learning Guide (Managed Learning Environment Activity in Further and Higher Education in the UK.

Jonassen, D. H. (1999). Designing Constructivist Learning Environments. In Reigeluth, C.M. (ed.), Instructional-Design Theories and Models: A New Paradigm of Instructional Theory. Volume II (pp. 115-140). Lawrence Erlbaum.

Kolb, D. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:

Prentice-Hall.

Laurillard, D. (2002). Rethinking University Teaching-a conversational framework for the effective use of educational technology. London, Routledge Farmer.

Laurillard, D. (1999) Learning formal representations through multimedia, in: N. Entwistle (Ed.)The experience of learning (London, Academic Press).

Maor, D. (2004). Pushing beyond the comfort zone: Bridging the gap between technology and pedagogy. In R. Atkinson, C. McBeath, D. Jonas-Dwyer & R. Phillips (Eds), Beyond the comfort zone: Proceedings of the 21st ASCILITE Conference (pp. 572-576). Perth, 5-8 December.

Mayes, T. and de Freitas, S. (2004) Review of e-Learning Theories, Frameworks and Models

Mayes, T. (2004) Learner-centred pedagogy: individual differences between learners, report for JISC Elearning

Models Desk Study,

McConnell, D. (2006) E-Learning Groups and Communities. Maidenhead, SRHE/OU Press.

Papert, S. (1980). Mindstorms. Sussex, The Harvester Press Limited.

Piaget, J. (1971) Biology and Knowledge: An essay on the relations between organic regulationsand cognitive processes. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.

Salmon (2000) E-Moderating: the key to teaching and learning online (London, Kogan Page).

Schon, D. (1992) Educating the reflective practitioner: towards a new design for teaching and learning in the professions (London, Jossey-Bass).

Stephenson, J. (2002) Teaching and Learning Online: Pedagogies for New Technologies, Kogan Page Ltd. London.

Valdez, G. McNabb, M. Foertsch, M. Anderson, M. Hawkes, M. Raack, L. (2000) Computer based technology and learning: evolving uses and expectations.

Vess, D. L. (2006). History to go: Why iTeach with iPods. History Teacher,39(4), 479-492.

Vygotsky, L. S. (1978) Mind in Society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Watson, D. (2001) Pedagogy before technology: Re-thinking the relationship between ICT and teaching. Education and Information Technologies, 6 (4), 251-266.

Weller, M. (2003) Delivering Learning on the Net, Routledge Falmer

Wenger, E. (1998) Communities of Practice: learning, meaning and identity. Cambridge. Cambridge University Press.

Wilson, W. (2003) Faculty Perceptions and Instructional Uses of Technology. Educause Quarterly (2003)

Windschitl, M. (2002) Framing constructivism in practice as the negotiation of dilemmas: an analysis of the conceptual, pedagogical, cultural, and political challenges facing teachers. Review of Educational Research 72 (2): 131–175.

Step 4: Install, Maintain & Develop Prototype (Rapid Prototyping - 4 Step Instructional Design Model)

Once you have implemented your amendments, the learning episode should be installed and appropriately maintained.

A logical directory structure is required to keep all of the graphics, text, audio clips organised into folders in such a way that you know where to find them when they need updating. Documentation should also be developed such as user guides and any further information.

Your evaluation should continue as part of an iterative process, in particular feedback from students. This will allow you to improve the effectiveness of your tutorial.

Click here to repeat Step 3 – Utilize Prototype.
Click here to repeat Step 2 – Construct Prototype.
Click here to repeat Step 1 – Analyze.

Step 3: Utilise Prototype (Rapid Prototyping - 4 Step Instructional Design Model)

A crucial part of the prototyping process is the utilization of the design with peers and potential learners. During utilization, the strengths and weaknesses of the prototype can be discovered. This needs to be done in a structured and timely way. There are three stages to the evaluation and ideally, each stage would occur in sequence, with a revision step between each stage where amendments to the prototype are made.

• Expert/Peer Review – Competent experts in the field check the content for validity, relevancy and currency
• Student Review – At this stage ideally a small number of learners work through the materials (four to eight selected from the student audience)
• e-Learning Review – The e-learning team proof, apply quality standards, evaluate instructional design, ease of navigation, screen design layout, technical performance

Ideally you should gain feedback on the following elements:

• Content
• Sequence and layout
• Media chosen
• Graphics/animations
• Navigation
• Assessments
• Objectives and Outcomes
• Overall comments

Click here for more information on Step 4 – Install, Maintain and Develop Prototype.
Click here to repeat Step 2 – Construct Prototype.
Click here to repeat Step 1 – Analyze.

Step 2: Construct Prototype (Rapid Prototyping - 4 Step Instructional Design Model)

The rapid prototyping process continues with the parallel processes of design and review, or construction and utilization. It involves:

• Incorporating your chosen pedagogical approach such as problem-based, collaboration, self instructional
• Deciding what content should be contained and how it should be structured and sequenced
• Preparing review and/or assessment questions, learner assignments
• Deciding what multimedia you require
• Deciding what is the proper ratio of text to audio, graphics, and interactivity

Structure and Sequence
The learning content should follow a simple, logical structure with clear sequence and instructions. The structure should include:

• Prerequisite knowledge requirements – this allows students to be able to put the learning episode into context
• Clearly stated learning objectives – both at the start and end of the learning episode. This allows the student to reflect on the knowledge that they have gained and provide closure by relating it to other learning episodes
• Sequenced content – ideally in increasing order of complexity, that matches specified learning objectives. Content should be relevant, meaningful practical and supportive, but unnecessary content should be made available in a downloadable document or perhaps into a wiki. If there is still a substantial amount of content then consider smaller learning episodes, rather than one big one.
• Formative assessment
• Summary of the key concepts
• Further reading resources
• Employ clear navigation which is consistent and accessible from anywhere within the session
• Employ real-world examples and scenarios where possible

Creating Assessments
A number of factors can determine how you assess or measure learners’ performance including your philosophy as an educator, the types of students you are dealing with and the delivery system you are using. However, the biggest consideration has to be the content you are teaching, particularly the levels of learning it represents and the performance objectives you have specified during the analysis phase of the process. Formative assessments enable the learner to test their knowledge, and to modify it or fill in gaps if necessary. A diversity of measures can be incorporated into your design either embedded or at the end of the module. These range from:

• Multiple choice, matching, or fill in the blanks (Bloom’s knowledge lower order content) to …
• Online discussions and simulations for performance objectives (Bloom’s higher levels of analysis, synthesis and evaluation)
• Performance measures that encourage critical reflection, are open-ended, practical, and provide opportunity to contextualize learning, are often more valuable and relevant than formal testing based on right or wrong answer

 If your assessment is robust enough, those who understand the content will pass, while those who don’t will fail. Ask a colleague to bluff their way through your assessment. If they pass, it’s obviously too weak. However, in every instance provide rich feedback.

Multimedia Options
All of us learn differently: some of us need to physically manipulate objects, others require auditory stimulus to reinforce key concepts, and still others require graphs, charts, diagrams, and photographs to create understanding. Few of us are either one way or the other. Rather, most of us learn best when a combination of learning styles are engaged to deliver concepts.

One of the key characteristics of e-Learning is its capability to integrate different media to create effective multimedia instructional material. Each medium offers unique opportunities to deliver instructional methods that others cannot. To exploit each medium fully, the unique capabilities of the technology should be used in ways that effectively support learning. However, a note of caution, be selective as too much unnecessary multimedia may distract learners and actually decrease learning performance. It can also prove to be impracticable and very costly to re-edit content with a short life expectancy.

Instructional Design Guidelines
This is where the learner interacts with the content by listening, reading, manipulating, and viewing the instructional content. Your choice of words, images, sounds, content flow, variety, and novelty all affect the success of a lesson. A balance of each ensures you are meeting the learning styles of diverse learners while creating an engaging and entertaining user experience. The five elements of the instructional component to consider are:

Text – Reading from a computer screen is around 25% slower than from paper; therefore as a guide text should:

• Be set into narrow columns rather than allowed to stretch across the entire webpage
• Have 50% of the word count of its paper equivalent
• Be written in a way that is easy to read and digestible
• Be used in conjunction with graphics, photographs, animations, audio and video to add meaning where appropriate
• Have a minimum font 10pt/line height 12pt and stick to one font type where possible
• Have enough whitespace
• Be mindful of using coloured text and backgrounds
• Have limited bold text – generally key terms, headings and subheadings
• Be enclosed in a box to make it easier to digest when necessary

Graphics/Photographs
Graphics in the form of illustrations, photographs, charts, graphs etc… can be an effective way to describe concepts and add visual interest. However, avoid bright decorations that compete with the substantive content for the learner’s attention. In addition, the overuse of graphical elements can be distracting and reduce the speed at which pages will load, given that good quality images can be large and require additional wait time for the user as they download, their effectiveness must be carefully weighed against this reality. Where possible use real photos rather than cartoons or illustrations to highlight key concepts. Be mindful of the School’s copyright and consent policy.

Audio – By no means should you use audio to read the entirety of a lesson to a learner. Nevertheless, audio done the right way can greatly enhance your e-learning materials because you are directing information to both the auditory and visual channels, distributing the mental workload. Audio can assist with humanizing the content by having a voice either welcome the learner to the course or give an introduction to a lesson. Audio can also be effective for providing auditory interest to simulations and to add authenticity to your content via subject matter experts. Users, however, must have a soundcard and speakers installed in their computers to benefit from audio.

Interactivity/Simulation – Animations can provide much needed interaction where appropriate and include: flip books, rollovers, click-ons etc… Again, avoid bright decorations and looped animations that compete with the content for the learner’s attention. Formative Assessments are also vital and can include: drag and drop, True/False, single best answer, multiple correct answer or hotspot. Simulations are time consuming to build but provide a powerful means for bringing content to life.

Video – Has long been accepted as a valuable teaching resource. It can provide a clarity and explicitness not possible with words or still pictures alone and it is an easily reusable/ shareable resource. Video is great for simulations and demonstrations. However, using video doesn’t guarantee effective learning, and it can create a passive experience if used inappropriately. Although it is true that digital video can now be produced on desktop equipment, there are still some important issues to consider including: very large file-sizes, quality, cost and content re-editing factors.

Once you have completed the design step and are happy with your prototype, again, please talk through your session progress with one of the e-learning team. This way we can:

• Review your chosen multimedia
• Provide any requested assets
• Provide further instructional design advice
• Proof read and apply specific quality standards
• Answer any questions and offer advice and guidance on best practice

 Click here for more information on Step 3 – Utilize Prototype.
Click here for more information on Step 1 – Analyze.